Understanding Package Visibility in Go

Understanding Package Visibility in Go

Written by Gopher Guides

When creating a package in Go, the end goal is usually to make the package accessible for other developers to use, either in higher order packages or whole programs. By importing the package, your piece of code can serve as the building block for other, more complex tools. However, only certain packages are available for importing. This is determined by the visibility of the package.

Visibility in this context means the file space from which a package or other construct can be referenced. For example, if we define a variable in a function, the visibility (scope) of that variable is only within the function in which it was defined. Similarly, if you define a variable in a package, you can make it visible to just that package, or allow it to be visible outside the package as well.

Carefully controlling package visibility is important when writing ergonomic code, especially when accounting for future changes that you may want to make to your package. If you need to fix a bug, improve performance, or change functionality, you’ll want to make the change in a way that won’t break the code of anyone using your package. One way to minimize breaking changes is to allow access only to the parts of your package that are needed for it to be used properly. By limiting access, you can make changes internally to your package with less of a chance of affecting how other developers are using your package.

In this article, you will learn how to control package visibility, as well as how to protect parts of your code that should only be used inside your package. To do this, we will create a basic logger to log and debug messages, using packages with varying degrees of item visibility.

Prerequisites

To follow the examples in this article, you will need:

A Go workspace set up by following How To Install Go and Set Up a Local Programming Environment. This tutorial will use the following file structure:

.
├── bin 
│ 
└── src
    └── github.com
        └── gopherguides

Exported and Unexported Items

Unlike other program languages like Java and Python that use access modifiers such as public, private, or protected to specify scope, Go determines if an item is exported and unexported through how it is declared. Exporting an item in this case makes it visible outside the current package. If it’s not exported, it is only visible and usable from within the package it was defined.

This external visibility is controlled by capitalizing the first letter of the item declared. All declarations, such as Types, Variables, Constants, Functions, etc., that start with a capital letter are visible outside the current package.

Let’s look at the following code, paying careful attention to capitalization:

greet.go

package greet
import "fmt"
var Greeting string
func Hello(name string) string {
    return fmt.Sprintf(Greeting, name)
}

This code declares that it is in the greet package. It then declares two symbols, a variable called Greeting, and a function called Hello. Because they both start with a capital letter, they are both exported and available to any outside program. As stated earlier, crafting a package that limits access will allow for better API design and make it easier to update your package internally without breaking anyone’s code that is depending on your package.

Defining Package Visibility

To give a closer look at how package visibility works in a program, let’s create a logging package, keeping in mind what we want to make visible outside our package and what we won’t make visible. This logging package will be responsible for logging any of our program messages to the console. It will also look at what level we are logging at. A level describes the type of log, and is going to be one of three statuses: info, warning, or error.

First, within your src directory, let’s create a directory called logging to put our logging files in:

mkdir logging

Move into that directory next:

cd logging

Then, using an editor like nano, create a file called logging.go:

nano logging.go

Place the following code in the logging.go file we just created:

logging/logging.go

package logging
import (
    "fmt"
    "time"
)
var debug bool
func Debug(b bool) {
    debug = b
}
func Log(statement string) {
    if !debug {
        return
    }
    fmt.Printf("%s %s\n", time.Now().Format(time.RFC3339), statement)
}

The first line of this code declared a package called logging. In this package, there are two exported functions: Debug and Log. These functions can be called by any other package that imports the logging package. There is also a private variable called debug. This variable is only accessible from within the logging package. It is important to note that while the function Debug and the variable debug both have the same spelling, the function is capitalized and the variable is not. This makes them distinct declarations with different scopes.

Save and quit the file.

To use this package in other areas of our code, we can import it into a new package. We’ll create this new package, but we’ll need a new directory to store those source files in first.

Let’s move out of the logging directory, create a new directory called cmd, and move into that new directory:

cd ..
mkdir cmd
cd cmd

Create a file called main.go in the cmd directory we just created:

nano main.go

Now we can add the following code:

cmd/main.go

package main
import "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
func main() {
    logging.Debug(true)
    logging.Log("This is a debug statement...")
}

We now have our entire program written. However, before we can run this program, we’ll need to also create a couple of configuration files for our code to work properly. Go uses Go Modules to configure package dependencies for importing resources. Go modules are configuration files placed in your package directory that tell the compiler where to import packages from. While learning about modules is beyond the scope of this article, we can write just a couple lines of configuration to make this example work locally.

Open the following go.mod file in the cmd directory:

nano go.mod

Then place the following contents in the file:

go.mod

module github.com/gopherguides/cmd
replace github.com/gopherguides/logging => ../logging

The first line of this file tells the compiler that the cmd package has a file path of github.com/gopherguides/cmd. The second line tells the compiler that the package github.com/gopherguides/logging can be found locally on disk in the ../logging directory.

We’ll also need a go.mod file for our logging package. Let’s move back into the logging directory and create a go.mod file:

cd ../logging
nano go.mod

Add the following contents to the file:

go.mod

module github.com/gopherguides/logging

This tells the compiler that the logging package we created is actually the github.com/gopherguides/logging package. This makes it possible to import the package in our main package with the following line that we wrote earlier:

cmd/main.go

package main
import "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
func main() {
    logging.Debug(true)
    logging.Log("This is a debug statement...")
}

You should now have the following directory structure and file layout:

├── cmd
│   ├── go.mod
│   └── main.go
└── logging
    ├── go.mod
    └── logging.go

Now that we have all the configuration completed, we can run the main program from the cmd package with the following commands:

cd ../cmd
go run main.go

You will get output similar to the following:

Output

2019-08-28T11:36:09-05:00 This is a debug statement...

The program will print out the current time in RFC 3339 format followed by whatever statement we sent to the logger. RFC 3339 is a time format that was designed to represent time on the internet and is commonly used in log files.

Because the Debug and Log functions are exported from the logging package, we can use them in our main package. However, the debug variable in the logging package is not exported. Trying to reference an unexported declaration will result in a compile-time error.

Add the following highlighted line to main.go:

cmd/main.go

package main
import "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
func main() {
    logging.Debug(true)
    logging.Log("This is a debug statement...")
    fmt.Println(logging.debug)
}

Save and run the file. You will receive an error similar to the following:

Output

. . .
./main.go:10:14: cannot refer to unexported name logging.debug

Now that we have seen how exported and unexported items in packages behave, we will next look at how fields and methods can be exported from structs.

Visibility Within Structs

While the visibility scheme in the logger we built in the last section may work for simple programs, it shares too much state to be useful from within multiple packages. This is because the exported variables are accessible to multiple packages that could modify the variables into contradictory states. Allowing the state of your package to be changed in this way makes it hard to predict how your program will behave. With the current design, for example, one package could set the Debug variable to true, and another could set it to false in the same instance. This would create a problem since both packages that are importing the logging package are affected.

We can make the logger isolated by creating a struct and then hanging methods off of it. This will allow us to create an instance of a logger to be used independently in each package that consumes it.

Change the logging package to the following to refactor the code and isolate the logger:

logging/logging.go

package logging
import (
    "fmt"
    "time"
)
type Logger struct {
    timeFormat string
    debug      bool
}
func New(timeFormat string, debug bool) *Logger {
    return &Logger{
        timeFormat: timeFormat,
        debug:      debug,
    }
}
func (l *Logger) Log(s string) {
    if !l.debug {
        return
    }
    fmt.Printf("%s %s\n", time.Now().Format(l.timeFormat), s)
}

In this code, we created a Logger struct. This struct will house our unexported state, including the time format to print out and the debug variable setting of true or false. The New function sets the initial state to create the logger with, such as the time format and debug state. It then stores the values we gave it internally to the unexported variables timeFormat and debug. We also created a method called Log on the Logger type that takes a statement we want to print out. Within the Log method is a reference to its local method variable l to get access back to its internal fields such as l.timeFormat and l.debug.

This approach will allow us to create a Logger in many different packages and use it independently of how the other packages are using it.

To use it in another package, let’s alter cmd/main.go to look like the following:

cmd/main.go

package main
import (
    "time"
    "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
)
func main() {
    logger := logging.New(time.RFC3339, true)
    logger.Log("This is a debug statement...")
}

Running this program will give you the following output:

Output

2019-08-28T11:56:49-05:00 This is a debug statement...

In this code, we created an instance of the logger by calling the exported function New. We stored the reference to this instance in the logger variable. We can now call logging.Log to print out statements.

If we try to reference an unexported field from the Logger such as the timeFormat field, we will receive a compile-time error. Try adding the following highlighted line and running cmd/main.go:

cmd/main.go


package main
import (
    "time"
    "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
)
func main() {
    logger := logging.New(time.RFC3339, true)
    logger.Log("This is a debug statement...")
    fmt.Println(logger.timeFormat)
}

This will give the following error:

Output

. . .
cmd/main.go:14:20: logger.timeFormat undefined (cannot refer to unexported field or method timeFormat)

The compiler recognizes that logger.timeFormat is not exported, and therefore can’t be retrieved from the logging package.

Visibility Within Methods

In the same way as struct fields, methods can also be exported or unexported.

To illustrate this, let’s add leveled logging to our logger. Leveled logging is a means of categorizing your logs so that you can search your logs for specific types of events. The levels we will put into our logger are:

The info level, which represents information type events that inform the user of an action, such as Program started, or Email sent. These help us debug and track parts of our program to see if expected behavior is happening.
The warning level. These types of events identify when something unexpected is happening that is not an error, like Email failed to send, retrying. They help us see parts of our program that aren’t going as smoothly as we expected them to.
The error level, which means the program encountered a problem, like File not found. This will often result in the program’s operation failing.

You may also desire to turn on and off certain levels of logging, especially if your program isn’t performing as expected and you’d like to debug the program. We’ll add this functionality by changing the program so that when debug is set to true, it will print all levels of messages. Otherwise, if it’s false, it will only print error messages.

Add leveled logging by making the following changes to logging/logging.go:

logging/logging.go


package logging
import (
    "fmt"
    "strings"
    "time"
)
type Logger struct {
    timeFormat string
    debug      bool
}
func New(timeFormat string, debug bool) *Logger {
    return &Logger{
        timeFormat: timeFormat,
        debug:      debug,
    }
}
func (l *Logger) Log(level string, s string) {
    level = strings.ToLower(level)
    switch level {
    case "info", "warning":
        if l.debug {
            l.write(level, s)
        }
    default:
        l.write(level, s)
    }
}
func (l *Logger) write(level string, s string) {
    fmt.Printf("[%s] %s %s\n", level, time.Now().Format(l.timeFormat), s)
}

In this example, we introduced a new argument to the Log method. We can now pass in the level of the log message. The Log method determines what level of message it is. If it’s an info or warning message, and the debug field is true, then it writes the message. Otherwise it ignores the message. If it is any other level, like error, it will write out the message regardless.

Most of the logic for determining if the message is printed out exists in the Log method. We also introduced an unexported method called write. The write method is what actually outputs the log message.

We can now use this leveled logging in our other package by changing cmd/main.go to look like the following:

cmd/main.go

package main
import (
    "time"
    "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
)
func main() {
    logger := logging.New(time.RFC3339, true)
    logger.Log("info", "starting up service")
    logger.Log("warning", "no tasks found")
    logger.Log("error", "exiting: no work performed")
}

Running this will give you:

Output

[info] 2019-09-23T20:53:38Z starting up service
[warning] 2019-09-23T20:53:38Z no tasks found
[error] 2019-09-23T20:53:38Z exiting: no work performed

In this example, cmd/main.go successfully used the exported Log method.

We can now pass in the level of each message by switching debug to false:

main.go

package main
import (
    "time"
    "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
)
func main() {
    logger := logging.New(time.RFC3339, false)
    logger.Log("info", "starting up service")
    logger.Log("warning", "no tasks found")
    logger.Log("error", "exiting: no work performed")
}

Now we will see that only the error level messages print:

Output

[error] 2019-08-28T13:58:52-05:00 exiting: no work performed

If we try to call the write method from outside the logging package, we will receive a compile-time error:

main.go

package main
import (
    "time"
    "github.com/gopherguides/logging"
)
func main() {
    logger := logging.New(time.RFC3339, true)
    logger.Log("info", "starting up service")
    logger.Log("warning", "no tasks found")
    logger.Log("error", "exiting: no work performed")
    logger.write("error", "log this message...")
}

Output

cmd/main.go:16:8: logger.write undefined (cannot refer to unexported field or method logging.(*Logger).write)

When the compiler sees that you are trying to reference something from another package that starts with a lowercase letter, it knows that it is not exported, and therefore throws a compiler error.

The logger in this tutorial illustrates how we can write code that only exposes the parts we want other packages to consume. Because we control what parts of the package are visible outside the package, we are now able to make future changes without affecting any code that depends on our package. For example, if we wanted to only turn off info level messages when debug is false, you could make this change without affecting any other part of your API. We could also safely make changes to the log message to include more information, such as the directory the program was running from.

Conclusion

This article showed how to share code between packages while also protecting the implementation details of your package. This allows you to export a simple API that will seldom change for backwards compatibility, but will allow for changes privately in your package as needed to make it work better in the future. This is considered a best practice when creating packages and their corresponding APIs.

To learn more about packages in Go, check out our Importing Packages in Go and How To Write Packages in Go articles, or explore our entire How To Code in Go series.

25. Understanding Package Visibility in Go

Understanding Package Visibility in Go

Prerequisites

Exported and Unexported Items

Defining Package Visibility

Visibility Within Structs

Visibility Within Methods

Conclusion